INTRODUCTION Pollution is a persistent global challenge that is borderless in nature and trans-institutional in ambition due to diffusive and severe environmental degradation. Most plastics in use today are virgin or primary, made from crude oil or gas. Each year, 1.1–8.8 million metric tons of plastic waste is predicted to reach the ocean from coastal areas. According to National Geographic, scientists found plastic coming from Russia, the United States, Europe, South America, Japan, and China on Henderson Island, an uninhabited, isolated atoll halfway between Chile and New Zealand. The Challenges of Plastic Plastic is one of the most widely used substances for containers, bags, furniture, etc. It is economically useful and can be molded into different forms. The non-biodegradable plastic waste is increasing daily, and its reduction takes years. Plastic does not decompose in soil or water. Plastic bags, bottles, straws, and other items break into tiny particles. This can make its way either into the soil and air or enter the water bodies. It contaminates the water kingdom and thereby contributes to plastic pollution. Why are plastics so dangerous? Reused, recycled, and secondary plastic production has quadrupled from 6.8 million tonnes (Mt) in 2000 to 29.1 million tonnes (Mt) in 2019. The Minderoo-Monaco Commission (2023) highlighted links between developmental issues in children, including reproductive organs, and neurodevelopmental impacts due to plastics. Microplastic accumulation in soil and water disrupts the delicate ecosystem balance, posing a risk to biodiversity. Natural disasters such as floods should be considered contributing factors to plastic pollution. UNEP reported in 2023 that water conservation is already a concern in regions ranging from California to India due to leaking plastic waste. Most of the litter and pollution affecting the world’s largest oceans originates from plastics. The most visible effect of microplastics is plastic-contaminated seafood, which transfers harmful chemicals such as BPA (bisphenol-A) and phthalates. People absorb plastic through their clothes, 70% of which are synthetic. WHO published (2018) the presence of microplastics in 90% of bottled water, the test of which revealed only 17 were free of plastics out of 259. Plastic can be large and small; polluting plastics affect even the world’s tiniest organisms, such as plankton. When these organisms become poisoned due to plastic ingestion, it causes problems for the larger animals and disrupts the food chain. Landfills and the Pacific have become dumping grounds for vast quantities of plastic waste. This has devastating consequences for the flora and fauna. As a result, wildlife, including marine animals, birds, and mammals, often mistake plastic debris and particles for food, leading to fatal consequences. Open burning of plastic pollutes the environment and releases toxic chemicals. Toxic, polluted air affects health and can cause several respiratory problems, like asthma. Despite countless TV ads over the years showing ducks or dolphins trapped in six-ring plastic can holders, these items are still used and discarded daily. Plastic pollution causes significant damage to the world’s ecosystems because the mass of plastic has displaced animals or the toxins associated with it have poisoned them. Millions of dollars are used to clean up the plastic-affected areas, along with the loss of life among plants, animals, and people. Since land is becoming more costly, simply finding a place to dump garbage becomes increasingly difficult in many parts of the world. Excess pollution leads to decreased tourism, thereby significantly impacting those economies. Plastic Pollution Remedies The plastic pollution issues require concerted efforts by individuals, companies, governments, and industries to agree to implement practices that reduce plastic waste on every level. Although complete plastic removal may not be feasible in the short term, the following measures may significantly reduce plastic pollution and promote sustainable practices: Implement 3R formulas to encourage plastic reuse, strengthen recycling infrastructure, and implement effective waste management systems. Concentrations of ocean plastic can be detected by NASA satellite technology, created in 2016. This technology can detect microplastic concentrations in water by measuring its surface. The government should implement the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) program, collaborate between nations to address plastic pollution, support eco-friendly packaging alternatives, and invest in sustainable materials. A project known as PlasticRoad created a bike path in the Dutch city of Zwolle and a road in Overijssel in 2018 using 70% recycled plastic. Ahmad Khan created Polyblend to lay roads. It enhances road sustainability by three times. Scientists developed a magnetic coil that may attract microplastics in the ocean. This experimental nanotechnology can break down microplastic in the water without causing any harm to marine life. There are many differences in making green choices at home, and we must move away from the throwaway culture. We have to choose products with less plastic packaging and refrain from cosmetics and private hygiene products that contain microbeads. Think about the small dots in toothpaste and facial scrubs, a type of microplastic. Get involved, speak to lawmakers, and see how many special interest groups have made it so that they are dependent on plastic without needing to be. Microplastics are plastic pieces that are smaller than 5 mm in length. Synthetic clothes release 500,000 tons of microfibers, equivalent to 50 billion plastic bottles. The brain is the organ that is most affected by microplastics. In the UK, microbeads are banned. Plastic bottles contain Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). It takes nearly 400 years to decompose naturally. US researchers (2022) created enzymes that can dissolve PET plastics within 48 hours. A practical way to prevent the spread of plastic pollution is local cleanup, an excellent example of collective action and removing all the litter. Ideonella sakaiensis bacteria can consume ocean plastics. Say no to extras when ordering takeout. This is such a simple fix that anyone may not think of it initially. When someone orders a takeaway, ensure not to add any cutlery. Conclusion The World Economic Forum found 78 million tonnes of plastic in 2016. 14% recycled, and 32% leaked into the environment. Many ecosystem components are affected, resulting in the loss of biodiversity. The world is healthier when it is clean and pollution

While the term “Drug Delivery systems” may be unheard of they are a constant in our everyday lives. Whether it’s a pill or an injection, the purpose of them remains the same – transport drugs into, or throughout the body. While many may believe that the current methods of drug delivery–transdermal, oral, and intravenous–are satisfactory and seem to be a quick fix to most of our bodily problems, the issue arises in the fact that our body is too vast and complex a vessel for all its issues to be treated by these methods. What is the blood-brain barrier, and how does it stand in the way of delivering medicine for diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Epilepsy, and Parkinson’s disease? Enter Viruses. While they may be known as evil entities due to our preconceived notions, their abilities transcend our presumptions, and they may be the key to developing effective, and more targeted drug delivery systems. Viruses are small infectious agents that can enter the body and deliver genetic material into the cells. These very qualities make it the most viable candidate to deliver genes to previously unreachable parts of the body. How is this done, you may ask? By the intervention of scientists, ofcourse! Their tiny form and ability to enter cells requires genetic engineering to carry therapeutic substances to specific cells in the body, which is done by a process known as Viral vector engineering. Viral vector engineering is the process of making an infectious virus into a non-infectious viral vector, by removing the genes that make it disease-causing. In their place, a therapeutic gene, (a functional version of the faulty ones causing the disease this viral vector is meant to cure) is inserted, thus ensuring that the virus can no longer replicate and harm the host. In this process, a crucial step is picking the right virus to engineer, examples of viruses that can be used are Adeno-associated virus ( AAV), due to its ability to infect non-dividing cells and its low pathogenicity, and Lentiviruses, due to their ability to insert their virus directly into the host cell’s genome, as it is a retrovirus. While the methodology of using viruses for drug delivery systems does make sense, the advantages and disadvantages must be weighed before deciding whether or not this can be practiced in real life. The targeted delivery provided by the engineering of viruses ensures that the therapeutic agent is delivered precisely where it needs to be, which is beneficial in minimizing the side effects of certain gene therapies on healthy tissues This can be seen in oncolytic virotherapy, in which viruses such as the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) are modified to infect and kill the cancer cells directly. A modified HSV (known as T-VEC) has been approved for the treatment of melanoma, showing just how revolutionary viruses can be in the form of a drug delivery system. Moreover, viruses possess a natural talent for invading cells, which improves the efficiency of transporting medicine, as this ability is not possessed by non-viral methods like liposomes or nanoparticles. Gene therapies are also already being successfully transported by viruses to cure genetic diseases such as hemophilia, in which viruses deliver the genes missing for clotting factors, and Leber’s congenital amaurosis, which is treated by the transport of a viral-based therapy, Luxturna, (voretigene neparvovec). However, there are certain threats. The uncertainty of the immune system’s response to viral vectors being used is a challenge–since there is always a chance that the immune system may recognize it as a foreign body and neutralize it even before it can deliver the medicine to its desired location. The presence of pre-existing immunity to common viruses such as adenoviruses also limits the use of different viruses, as the immune system is already primed and ready to attack. Additionally, the chance of insertional mutagenesis with retroviruses such as lentiviruses, which can insert their DNA into the genome of the host cell, requires consideration– if this integration appears near an oncogene, the chance of causing cancer is high, which was a catastrophic problem in the gene therapy trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency, in which this integration led to many children developing leukemia. Engineering viral vectors, more specifically adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) and lentiviruses, for genetic material injections, are becoming more effective. One such direction that is receiving a lot of focus is improving the targeting of specific cell types by changing or otherwise modifying, viral capsids—structures that encapsulate the viral genome to shield it. For example, scientists are developing capsid variants that enable lower doses to decrease the risk of immune response and have fewer side effects. Looking forward, the future of viral vector engineering incorporates innovations that will improve better design of viral capsids by application of machine learning, improved efficiency of delivery, and cheaper manufacturing. In a disease like Leber’s congenital amaurosis, these advancements, in all likelihood, can treat this disease, potentially curing a genetic disorder after a single administration. Viral vectors are rapidly becoming the most powerful weapon in drug delivery systems, especially gene therapy. Although such problems as immune responses, manufacturing costs, and ethical concerns do exist, the research that is still going on is finding solutions to these problems. The future of viral vector gene therapy via the improvement of targeting, dosage control, and the potential to treat complex diseases such as cancer or genetic disorders is very promising. Avni Goswami Student at Lancers International School About the author: Hi My name is Avni Goswami and I’m a 16-year-old student at Lancers International School with big dreams of becoming a doctor. I’m passionate about biology and human sciences, and I love diving deep into the complexities of the human body. Driven and curious, I strive for excellence in everything I do, and I’m always eager to learn something new. My goal is to combine my knowledge and empathy to make a difference in the world through medicine.

Introduction The universe is so big, that it is created by an unprecedented event. We can see stars, planets, and galaxies using telescopes, but a very large substance is hidden in the shadows of the cosmos, and silently shaping it. This substance, called dark matter, is the greatest mystery in today’s astronomy. Unlike usual matter, dark matter can not emit or absorb light, rather it renders it invisible and can not be detected through conventional ways. It forms 27% of total cosmic mass and energy. On the other hand, ordinary one makes up only 5%  (Ade, Aumont et al. 2016). The gravitational influence of dark matter is significant in terms of galaxy creation and the broader universe structure (Bullock and Boylan-Kolchin 2017). For the first time, hints of the existence of dark matter emerged from the observation of Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s, where he recognized that galaxies in the form of clusters moved very swiftly to be held by the visible matter solely (Zwicky 1979).   1. Understanding Dark Matter Dark matter is a basic yet unknown portion of the universe that has attained the attention of astronomers and physicists for years. Ordinary matter builds up stars, planets, and all visible objects, while dark matter is not associated with electromagnetic forces, which means it can not emit, absorb, or reflect light. This property causes dark matter to be invisible, and its presence can only be detected by the gravitational effects it pulls on visible matter, radiation, and the universe’s structure (Bertone and Hooper 2018). The dark matter’s existence was first presented to explain inconsistencies in the galaxy mass and clusters observed in comparison to the mass that is calculated based on visible matter only. Such inconsistencies were first identified by Fritz Zwicky where it was noted that the Coma Cluster galaxies were moving at an enormous pace which could not be described by the the visible matter’s gravitational pull only (Zwicky 1979). This resulted in the hypothesis that a hidden existence of matter, later came to be known as “dark matter,” must be pulling additional gravitational force to keep these galaxies held in one entity.  2. Dark Matter’s Role in Cosmic Structure Dark matter has a vital role in shaping the broader cosmic structure. The dark matter’s gravitational impact is the primary power which drives the creation and evolution of structures of the cosmos (Bullock and Boylan-Kolchin 2017). One of the strong parts of evidence for the dark matter’s role in the formation of the structure of the cosmos emerges from the research of the radiation of cosmic microwave background (CMB). The CMB is the afterglow of the Big Bang, giving a universe image when it was aged 380,000 years. Small CMB fluctuations, representing tiny variations of density in the starting universe, were the basis of all the structure creation. Such fluctuations would not have turned into the galaxies and clusters observed today if the additional pull of gravity given by dark matter was not involved (Ade, Aumont et al. 2016).  As the universe extended and cooled, dark matter started to accumulate together having its gravity, creating solid and highly dense areas called dark matter halos. The halos acted as the gravitational wells into which normal matter dropped, consequently making galaxies. If there was no dark matter, such structures would not have gotten enough pull of gravity for overcoming the extension and coalesce of the universe in the galaxy forms and galaxy clusters we see this day (van den Bosch, More et al. 2013).  3. Dark Matter and the Evolution of the Universe   The universe continues to evolve, since the day it was formed, and dark matter plays a pivotal role in it. After the Big Bang, the temperature of the universe was high with a dense soup of substances. The moment it extended and cooled, dark matter started to pull its gravitational effect, resulting in the creation of the primary cosmos structures. The radiation hindered the ordinary matter, on the other hand, dark matter freely clumped together in the earlier stages, making the wells of gravity that would consequently turn into galaxies and the clusters of galaxies (van den Bosch, More et al. 2013). The impact of dark matter went on with the evolution of the universe. In the times of the “cosmic dark ages,” the time before stars and galaxies had been created, the gravitational pull of dark matter assisted in gathering the gas that would consequently light and create the first stars. These stars started to re-ionize the universe, putting an end to the dark ages and letting light letting for travelling with no intervention throughout space  (Barkana and Loeb 2001).   4. The Search for Dark Matter The exploration of dark matter is a significant challenge in today’s astrophysics and particle physics. The existence of dark matter is accepted worldwide because of its gravitational influences on ordinary matter, radiation, and the universe matter, dark matter has always remained mysterious. Scientists are searching for different tactics for the detection and comprehend this intriguing element of the universe.One of the basic procedures for the detection of dark matter undergoes experiments of direct detection. Such experiments are made for the identification of uncommon interactions that form between the particles of dark matter and ordinary matter. Detectors are specifically put deep underground to save them from the rays of the cosmos and other noise generated by the background. There is the sensitivity of such experiments, like the experiment of Large Underground Xenon (LUX), hence no conclusive fact for dark matter is found yet (Brás, Lindote et al. 2017).  Another strategy is the detection which is done indirectly, which observes the dark matter decay products. Particles of dark matter, if exist, could clash with each other, generating gamma radiations, neutrinos, or other substances that are detected. Observatories such as the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope have been exploring for such signals, but the consequences are not conclusive (Ackermann, Ajello et al. 2015). Scientists are trying to generate the particles of dark matter within particle accelerators, like the

‘As low as possible, reasonably achievable’- the motto of radiation – Dr. Manoj Wakde Radiation therapy is one of the three main modalities used to kill cancer and it intrigued me when I recently had the chance to visit and shadow doctors at the Apollo Proton Cancer Centre in Chennai witnessing the revolutionizing proton therapy technology in the field of cancer care which is making patients’ lives easier and pain-free. Being the first proton center in India, The Apollo Proton Cancer Centre has grown to become one of the fastest-growing cancer centers in the world. This specialized hospital has provided care to billions of cancer patients from over 145 countries in the world. During this shadowing, I met Dr. Manoj Wakde, and Dr. Ashok Reddy who are both radiation therapists, and Dr. Dayananda Sharma Shamurailatpam, a medical physicist. I took this as an opportunity to learn more about this technology and how it’s helping cancer patients by conducting interviews regarding proton therapy. 1. How does radiation therapy work? Radiation therapy aims to kill cancer cells using energy. The energy, carried by radiation, is deposited on DNA strands to break them, eventually destroying the cells. Although, radiation can lead to 3 possible outcomes: ⦁ Both strands of DNA are broken ⦁ One strand is broken so the strand can be repaired and the cell can be viable again⦁ Repaired but mutated- it can become a cancer cell ‘This is why radiation is a double-edged sword- it stops cancer but can also cause it so must be used judiciously.’ – Dr Dayananda Tumors absorb energy per unit mass, which is why physicians have to then quantify the amount of energy required for the treatment of the tumor with minimal damage to other cells, keeping in mind the maximum dose of energy that can damage cancer cells without going to other healthy organs. To achieve this, it is vital to perform a risk-benefit optimization so that a curable dose of radiation is provided and the risk of cancer spread or damage to other cells can be avoided. What makes Proton therapy so unique? Proton therapy is based on the principle of Bragg peak (loss of energy when radiation passes through an object). It differentiates proton therapy from other forms of treatment by giving protons the stopping power. Protons are charged particles that have a mass unlike gamma or alpha rays. This means that after a certain point, their velocity will become zero- the protons will stop traveling- and since they are charged they will drop most of their radiation in the place they stop at. Therefore it reduces the dose of radiation emitted to the peripheral cells near the tumor. Figure: 1. Energy dosage difference in Proton and X-Ray radiations. Image courtesy: https://ro-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/principle_img_1.jpg High-energy X-rays, which are another form of radiation, deposit a lot of energy in their pathway toward the tumor and once reaching it, give out their maximum energy, which never falls to zero. Therefore the dose emitted never ends and passes through the body, affecting critical organs behind the tumor. On the other hand, the proton beam therapy has a very low entry dose. Once reaching the tumor it then quickly reaches its maximum emitted dose at the tumor site and then falls to zero. Due to this proton therapy does not emit any radiation to the surrounding healthy cells. How is the treatment planned? Apollos’ proton machine generates energy up to 26.2 million electron volts which can travel up to 32 cm into the body! However, sometimes the tumor is closer than 32 cm which is why less amount of energy sufficient to reach the tumor needs to be generated. The proton beam released from the machine has a sharp 3 mm diameter called a pencil beam. The tumor in 3 dimensions is considered as made of multiple 3 mm slices. At each sitting, radiation of different energies is given to different slices to reach the tumor, spot by spot. Figure 2: Immobilization device The process of planning proton treatment is formed in a systematic order. First doctors prepare a mask for the area of treatment using what is called an immobilization device. For example, it can be a head and neck mask, brain mask, etc. They do a CT simulator scan to localize the area of the tumor. This CT scan then goes to the treatment planning systems where doctors figure out how to treat the tumor and its surrounding areas. The medical physicians plan the route of treatment and plan the doses of energy given. After all of this is completed the doctors then look into the plan and a quality assurance check is done. Once the go-ahead is given, the patient starts to receive the dose during the sessions. Medical physicians have dedicated computers with software designed for planning proton therapy. Using the CT scan and the algorithms of their computer software, they can create a 3-dimensional volume/figure of the patient. From that, they measure the volume of the patient, the subvolume of the tumor, and other critical organs surrounding it. They also use a specific algorithm that tracks the path of the proton beam and the dose of radiation emitted in the pathway. Further, they decide the direction and technique of the radiation to be used, for example, 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy, conventional radiation therapy, or intensity-modulated radiation therapy. They also check the dose of energy given to any surrounding critical organs and sit with the radiation oncologist to see whether these doses might affect the healthy organs. I had mentioned earlier that the doctors carry out a quality assurance check. But how does this check happen? Well after creating a computerized-automated plan, to test whether it meets the criteria of achieving more than a 95% accuracy and similarity rate with the computer plan a ‘phantom’ is used. This phantom is essentially a water tank to test the plan. Since the human body is mainly made of water, to perform the quality assurance test

Have you ever experienced a feeling of sadness after eating a cheesious pizza at Burgerking? Well,Most people”ll respond “NO” with a bursting laughter after hearing this question which indicates that the idea is utterly absurd and comical to them.Eating pizza or any kind of junk food usually and unfortunately makes us all feel happy. But that happiness actually costs the happiness of good bacteria residing your gut. Our gut is teeming with a lot of microorganisms ; bacteria, yeast etc what makes the botanical garden or “Microbiome” of gut. Besides playing important roles in nutrition, drug metabolism and immunomodulation , the microflora has a significant impact on our mental health. It can be understood by the fact that 95% of serotonin in our body is synthesized by our gut microbiome and not by our brain. Most of these bacteria contain enzyme “Tryphtophan hydroxylase” that converts tryptophan into 5-hydroxytryphtophan which is later converted to serotonin. Serotonin also known as “feel good hormone” makes us feel happier, focused, emotionally stable and calmer. Serotonin also contributes to the formation of melatonin;a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycle. The sad part about consuming junk food is that most of their constituents are lethal to gut bacteria i.e the additives and preservatives. Moreover, the processed fats oxidize and generate free radicals that can damage bacterial membranes leading to their death. Eventually a person comes up with a condition in which he/she has reduced levels of serotonin and other neurotransmitters. The fact can be related to sudden burst of laziness and lethargy after consuming a whole lot of junk food. Studies also claim that prolonged consumption of processed food can have long term effect on your mental health leading to neuropsyciatric disorders like ADHD, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders. This phenomenon helps explain why individuals from affluent backgrounds are more prone to developing these disorders, in contrast to individuals with modest means who cannot afford to indulge in extravagant lifestyle choices, such as frequent partying and luxurious diets that can contribute to the development of these conditions. Research suggests that therapies focused on enhancing and restoring the gut microbiome, such as Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT), may be a valuable treatment approach for psychiatric disorders. Transplantation of fecal bacteria from healthy donors has been found to positively impact mental health by reducing symptoms of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia, by reintroducing diverse and beneficial microbial communities into the gut, promoting a healthier gut-brain axis and suggesting a promising adjunctive treatment strategy for mental health management. The idea was confirmed by Mar;Gracias and colleagues through a variety of experiments on NOD( non-obese diabetic) and B6 strain of lab mice. The question is “If junk foods are making you feel sad, what kind of foods can make you feel happier?” The simple answer is “The food that makes your gut bacteria happy, actually makes “you” feel happy”. One good option is Probiotics;The live microorganisms. They are abundantly found in fermented foods like yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut etc. Researchers have used the term “psycobiotics” for them in regard to their positive impact on mental health. They help flourish the gut microbiome leading to instant rush of serotonin that’d last longer and help you unlock your full potential. So, next time you feel like your “inner lion” is sleeping, it’s time to reassess your dietary choices and look after the “Lilliputian organisms” residing inside you. Rutba Emaan Bachelors in Pathology Lab Sciences, Sargodha Medical College, UOS About the author: Meet Rutba Eman, a dedicated and aspiring medical professional currently pursuing her Bachelor’s degree in Pathology Lab Sciences at Sargodha Medical College, University of Sargodha. Rutba is driven by a passion to unravel the intricacies of human biology and disease mechanisms. Through her writing, she hopes to inspire others to explore the wonders of life sciences and foster a deeper understanding of the medical field. With her unique blend of scientific expertise and writing enthusiasm, Rutba is poised to make a meaningful impact in the world of science communication.

The elevated level of LDL Cholesterol in individuals is a global concern, potentially caused by various factors including poor diet, obesity, lack of physical exercise, smoking, age, or genetics. No doubt with the help of Cholesterol-lowering drugs/intermittent injections one can lower their levels in the blood, but what if we don’t have to consume the pills daily, what if a one-time medication can last a lifetime? Sounds Amazing? Let’s dive into the generation and execution of this concept in the laboratory of Verve Therapeutics, a Boston-based biotechnology company. Before jumping to details let me just brush up on your knowledge of molecular concepts behind this technology… Our body is made up of 37.2 trillion cells, each cell has a nucleus where the genetic material (DNA) is packaged into a thread-like structure called a Chromosome. DNA contains the instructions necessary for our cells to function properly. It is made up of four chemical bases- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine. Similar to how letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words, the specific order or sequences of these bases encode our genes. Any disruption in the sequence of bases (mutations) can produce genes that are dysfunctional or missing altogether. Mutations can cause inherited diseases like the genetic disorder: “Heterozygous Familial hypercholesterolemia” which cranks up the “bad cholesterol” in the blood. LDL Cholesterol is infamous for clogging arteries. The patient’s disorder can lead to severe heart disease at an early age which can be fatal. To overcome this genetic disorder, the Verve Therapeutics team came up with the idea of using CRISPR 2.0 (Base editing) Technology to lower the level of LDL Cholesterol permanently without worrying about the symptoms throughout their lifespan. The origin story behind the creation of CRISPR/Cas9 system In a document, if we suspect we have misspelled a word, we can use the find function to highlight the error and correct it or delete it. Within our DNA that function is taken on by a system called CRISPR/Cas9. CRISPR is short for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, a mouthful term which in simple words means that it is a short (20-30 nucleotides) palindromic repeating sequence of DNA that is interrupted by so-called spacer elements or spacers – sequences of genetic code, derived from the genomes of previously encountered bacterial pathogens. Fig 1: CRISPR array. The CRISPR technology came about through a basic research project being performed in Emmanuelle’s lab in Germany that was aimed at discovering how bacteria fight viral infections. Bacteria have to deal with viruses in their environment all the time and we can compare a viral infection to a ticking time bomb, a bacterium has only a few minutes to defuse the bomb before it gets destroyed. Fig 2: Bacterial Adaptive Immune System. So basically, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna collaborated on this project in 2011 and eventually, they were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on CRISPR-Cas9- a method to edit DNA. The emergence of CRISPR 2.0 (Base editing) Base editing is also a gene-editing technology created to target single-point mutations where a single nucleotide base is changed, deleted, or inserted, it’s like a spell check for genes. It is different from the CRISPR/Cas9 approach wherein a combination of the Cas9 enzyme and a guide RNA (CRISPR RNA+ tracr RNA), cuts DNA, and the natural DNA repair process takes over. However, they can lead to unwanted effects such as insertions, deletions (Indels), or other DNA rearrangements at the site of the break which raises the risk of side effects. Therefore, CRISPR/Cas9 acts like scissors whereas Base editing acts like an eraser. The therapy developed by Verve can erase and rewrite one letter of the genome at a time. To use CRISPR 2.0, scientists first identify the sequence of the human genome that causes a health problem. In this case, that sequence is inside the PCSK9 gene in the liver which encodes instructions for manufacturing a protein that raises blood cholesterol level. Just one edit in a precise location shuts PCSK9 down. The team created a genetic medicine called VERVE-101TM designed to turn off a Cholesterol-raising gene (PCSK9). The structure and function of Verve-101TM Verve-101 relies on a DNA-modifying protein called an adenine base editor. Base editors consist of two components joined together: a CRISPR-Cas9 protein bound to a guide RNA which identifies features of a target DNA sequence and a base-converting enzyme which carries out the desired edit to the target base. Firstly, the RNA Cas9 combination searches for a docking sequence that unwinds the adjacent DNA, and searches for a perfect match between the guide RNA sequence and the target DNA sequence. If there is both a docking sequence and a matching sequence, then the Cas9 produces a single-strand DNA nick, and the base-converting enzyme makes a base change, in this case, a single A-to-G change in the DNA genetic sequence of PCSK9. Further, the cells repair the base change which leads to a permanent DNA change called a Base edit, with corrected DNA instructions the cell can now function normally. Fig 3: Steps involved in Base editing. The concept of this gene editing technology entails a “once-in-a-lifetime” approach, which could prove intriguing for future applications. However, alongside many benefits of genome editing, there are also some ethical and societal concerns to consider. References:  synthego.com sciencenews.org businesswire.com Challenges of Gene Editing Therapies for Genodermatoses by Imogen R. Brooks, Adam Sheriff, Declan Moran, Jingbo Wang, and Joanna Jacków crisprmedicinenews.com Aanchal Bhatia  B. Tech Biotechnology from Punjab, Agricultural University (PAU) About the author: I have a deep understanding of biotechnology and am passionate about science communication. I have a strong interest in the field of biological sciences and intend to pursue my master’s degree in the same field.

Have you ever experienced that magical moment when you meet someone new and it feels like you’ve known them forever? Maybe it’s happened to you with a new classmate, a colleague, or even a stranger you encountered in an unexpected place — a pub restroom, perhaps? In those first moments of meeting them, there’s an inexplicable connection — an instant click. Conversations flow effortlessly, your vibes match immediately. There’s chemistry. It’s what we fondly refer to as a click friendship. For years, scientists have been on a quest to unravel the mystery behind these instant connections: why do we click with some people instantly? What hidden cues lead to forming such bonds?  It turns out that we may not be all that different from our furry friends in this matter. You may have noticed the intricate ritual of sniffing and scent-sharing that occurs when two dogs meet for the first time; it’s a ceremony that decides whether to reposition into a friendly play pose or bark aggressively. It’s not just dogs though; most land mammals rely on olfactory information to assess potential friends and foes. Researchers at the Weizmann Institute wondered: Do humans also sniff each other subconsciously to decide whether they can be friends? In a study published in Science Advances, they showed that this may indeed be the case: people who smelled similar were more likely to hit it off than those who didn’t. Yes, you read that right — our noses might play a much bigger role in our friendships than we imagined. Friends who instantly clicked smell similar The scientists conducted this study on 20 non-romantic same-sex friend pairs who mutually described their first encounter as a click friendship. They collected the participants’ body scent-containing T-shirts and sampled them using an instrument called an electronic nose (eNose). An eNose is a smell-detecting device containing various metal oxide sensors capable of detecting different volatile chemicals. When exposed to a mixture of volatile molecules that make up a smell, the molecule-sensor interactions create a unique pattern of electrical signals, thereby allowing us to record a smell fingerprint of the sample. Using the eNose, the researchers discovered that click friends exhibited more chemical similarity in their body odors compared to random pairs. To confirm this, the scientists called on professional smellers — individuals with a heightened sense of smell. The smellers were given randomized pairs of scent-containing T-shirts and asked to rate their similarities. The smellers’ results were in agreement with the eNose: click friends indeed smelled more similar to each other than random pairs. Body scent can predict whether strangers click with each other These results raised a fundamental question: if friends smell more similar than random pairs, can we predict whether two strangers could hit it off based on body scent alone? To explore this, the researchers devised an experimental set up. They recruited strangers, engaged them in interactions to identify pairs that clicked and those that didn’t, and then analyzed their smells using the eNose. To determine whether an interaction clicked or not, the researchers used the Mirror Game, a tried and tested imitation exercise to study non-verbal interactions between people. The exercise is based on the principle that coordinated body movements often reflect relationship quality and outcome. In the study, two strangers were asked to stand face-to-face at a close distance so they could subconsciously smell each other, and try to mirror each other’s hand movements. Based on scores for synchrony and whether they mutually reported a click, the researchers identified click and non-click pairs. They then performed eNose analyses of all the participants’ body scents. To their surprise, they found that the strangers who reported clicking with each other had significantly more chemical similarity than the ones who did not click.  In other words, the eNose could predict with ~ 70 % accuracy which individuals would click from their body scents alone! These findings shed light on an interesting facet of human behavior: just as we gravitate towards friends who bear visual similarity to ourselves, it seems that we are also naturally drawn to those who smell like us. Click friends smell similar, and strangers who smell similar are more likely to hit it off than those who don’t share scent similarity. So there’s indeed chemistry in social chemistry! It makes you wonder whether we also pick romantic partners based on scent similarity. Could we have gotten the old adage wrong — perhaps it’s not love at first sight but love at first sniff? Dr. Gauri Binayak Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Pune About the author: My curiosity about the world led me to the world of science for higher education. During my Ph.D., I realized that the research we do remains understood only by a small community. To the general public, science remains a mysterious realm inhabited by strange white coat-wearing species who mix fumy chemicals and speak in complicated language. I have become deeply interested in bridging this gap through content creation.

To,Oenothera pallidaDessert fields,The steppe of the Columbia Plateau,Echo Basin, Washington, US. My dear White Evening Primrose, I am writing this letter with the hope that it will reach you and that we can connect again soon. I want to let you know that I am in agony; my evenings without you are incomplete. I still remember the first time I met you, and you looked magical with flowers all over you. The air around me was saturated with your sweet fragrance, and that is how I found my way to you, conquering kilometers. We became friends in no time, and you generously gifted me with your pollen when I returned home. Lovely days… Things have changed now. It has been more than a week since we last met. I know you will be anticipating my arrival. However, dear friend, I have been unable to track your fragrance and navigate my way to you in the past few days. I feel blinded. I was so confused about what was happening that I fortunately met Dr. Chan and the team from The University of Washington. The team conducted experiments to study the effect of air pollutants on the association between pollinators and primrose flowers and recently published their findings in The Journal Science. I had a conversation with them about our situation, and what they shared was highly shocking. Let me explain. White evening primrose and Hawk moth. (Under creative commons license; https://www.flickr.com/photos/inannabintali/51312941087;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hyles_gallii_-_Bedstraw_hawk-moth_) My dear Primrose, it was surprising to know that your smell is composed of a specific combination of different chemicals mentioned as bioactive compounds, and the recipe is unique among all flowers, it seems. Now, I know why you smell special, my friend! The scientists collected these bioactive compounds responsible for the floral scent using traps installed in the primrose fields. They analyzed the scent samples to identify the compounds and also for their potential to attract pollinators. They conducted wind tunnel experiments to study the compounds’ degradation rate by air pollutants like NO3 (Nitrate radical) and O3 (ozone). How this reaction affected the ability of hawkmoths to navigate the way to flowers was also studied. Illustration depicting the wind tunnel experimental setup The scientists discovered that nitrate radicals have a greater impact on certain chemicals like monoterpenes, which are crucial for attracting moths to flowers, compared to ozone pollutants. In these experiments, moths struggled to locate flowers when exposed to nitrate radicals. Nitrate radicals diminish a flower’s ability to emit scents that can effectively attract pollinators, reducing their reach and making them harder for moths to detect. Dear Primrose, After hearing all this information from Dr. Chan and the team, I know why I couldn’t find you, and I am heartbroken because there is no hope left. The human epoch has made our lives challenging. I don’t know if we will meet ever again. I miss our times together and will keep trying to find my way to you. Please hand over a letter of reply to Mr. Wind, who brought this letter to you. I am eagerly waiting to hear from you. Please do not forget me. With lots of love! Your FriendHawk Moth References Chan, J. K., Parasurama, S., Atlas, R., Xu, R., Jongebloed, U. A., Alexander, B., … & Riffell, J. A. (2024). Olfaction in the Anthropocene: NO3 negatively affects floral scent and nocturnal pollination. Science, 383(6683), 607-611. Arya K Ph.D. Student, Department of Plant Sciences, Manipal School of Life SciencesAbout the author: I completed my Bachelor’s degree in Agriculture, and my Master’s degree is in Applied Microbiology. I am passionate about communicating science to a broader audience and believe that science tastes better when skillfully blended with the sweetness of art and the spices of storytelling.

Introduction to Precision Medicine Precision medicine is one of the most promising and revolutionary approaches in healthcare today. Simply put, it aims to customize medical treatment to match each person’s unique biological make-up, lifestyle, and health circumstances instead of using a one-size-fits-all strategy. This gives doctors a more targeted game plan for preventing, diagnosing, and treating illness in each individual. Precision medicine initially rose as a technological advancement and now allows us to understand patients at deeper genetic and molecular levels than ever before. What Triggers Unique Treatment Needs? Why two people with high blood pressure might require different medications or doses? Or why does a particular type of cancer therapy shrink tumors in one patient but not work in another with seemingly similar cancer characteristics? A clue lies in our distinctive DNA blueprint, which houses over 20,000 genes that make us who we are. Even slight genetic changes from a variety of causes mean no two patient’s profile is identical and neither is the progression of their disease. Beyond genetic differences, external and social factors also influence biology to shape health uniquely for each person. Hence we require Precision medicine. Harnessing the Biomarker Revolution The key strategy for precision medicine is testing wider varieties of biomarkers, to drive customization of essential biological clues specific to an illness, and to pinpoint the triggers and targets for preventing or treating a disease in each patient. An example of such a cue is how blood glucose levels successfully help monitor diabetes. Precision diagnostics expand such markers into all aspects of assessing wellness and disease. Tiny embedded sensors now allow constant biomarker tracking to catch early anomalies while liquid biopsies can detect specific cancer DNA biomarkers circulating in blood without invasive sampling. Scientists are finding new ways to measure things in our bodies that can help predict and understand our health. These new tests can give a very detailed picture of what is happening inside us at the smallest, microscopic level. This detailed information about the molecules and processes in our bodies is helping doctors make more precise and personalized decisions about how to best treat and care for each person. The availability of these advanced tests that provide a comprehensive health snapshot at the molecular level is laying the foundation for more tailored, effective medical treatments. Real-World Tailoring of Precision Techniques How does biomarker testing ultimately translate to personalized care paths? A major focus is matching medication therapy. Patients with distinct biomarker profiles metabolize drugs differently, experiencing alternate effectiveness levels and side effects. Testing helps guide which drug or dosage a patient can optimally react to while avoiding toxicity. For instance, a breast cancer patient whose tumor has extra HER2 protein receptors will greatly benefit from targeted HER2 inhibitor drugs while those without excess HER2 activity will see little effect. What is HER2 you might wonder, it is a protein found on some breast cancer cells that have the potential to proliferate and spread, but certain treatments can target it to help stop the cancer’s progression. So testing exposes these variations. Other applications utilize biomarkers to categorize disease subtypes beyond broad labels like diabetes, with customized treatment protocols for each molecularly defined subtype instead of generalized approaches. Patients further along the disease progression with advanced genetic biomarker flags would receive more aggressive therapies. The Future of Medicine Precision medicine marks a significant change in how diagnosing, monitoring, treating, and preventing diseases. It is based on highly customized molecular blueprints for each patient’s health situation instead of taking a one-size-fits-all approach. By harnessing biomarker revolutions and technological innovations that rapidly unlock our biological individuality, healthcare is increasingly tailored to get the right therapy to the right patient at the right time. Despite challenges related to specialized infrastructure and access, the future appears promising for making highly customized healthcare accessible to everyone as precision medicine programs continue to grow. Parvathy Nair M.Sc. Biotechnology at Florida Institute of Technology About the author: I’m a passionate Biotech Engineer who completed my Bachelors degree in Biotechnology from SRM Institute of Science and Technology, India and am currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Biotechnologyat Florida Institute of Technology, fueled by my enthusiasm for cancer research and drug discovery. My thesis project focuses on identifying new therapies for breast cancer. I aspire to a career where I can leverage my background in cell and molecular biology, genomics, and translational research to drive scientific innovation that advances cancer treatment and helps patients. I’m motivated by the potential to make a meaningful impact in an exciting, fast-paced field that aligns with my interests.

Imagine you are trying to sleep in your cozy, dark room. Suddenly comes a mosquito humming an unpleasant song in your ears, and then the swatting begins. Have you ever wondered how these pesky insects brilliantly escape out of your hands, mostly even in pitch darkness? Are they relying on senses other than vision? A team of researchers from Wageningen University came up with an amusing answer to these questions. The hypothesis was that mosquitoes might depend on air movements for escape, especially when there is darkness around. Their observations have been recently published in the Current Biology journal.Now Let me invite your attention from the cozy bedroom to a magic show in which mosquitoes are the magicians, and the swat escape is their magic act. The researchers set up a stage for the magician to perform and then closely monitored to unravel the trick behind the act. The Stage The researchers planned two sets of experiments. The first aimed to determine the influence of air movements on the escape probability of the mosquitoes from the looming object. The flight maneuvers of the escaping mosquitoes were studied in the second experiment.The researchers conducted two sets of experiments with dedicated setups and procedures. The first experiment aimed to determine whether air movements influence the escape probability of malarial mosquitoes from looming objects while the second investigated the flight maneuvers of mosquitoes escaping from such objects. They arranged a customized flight arena with LED panels and a mechanical swatter with a disc. The swatter disc’s size was similar to a human hand, which replicated the looming object. Additionally, they integrated high-speed cameras to capture videos of flying mosquitoes. The magician and the script The scientists released some female malaria mosquitoes into a closed area and allowed them to fly freely. Inside the cage, they autocontrolled the light conditions and the triggering of the swatter based on the real-time position and velocity of the mosquitoes. The scientists calculated the forces exerted on the mosquito by the surrounding air during the escape. Image Courtesy: Cribellier et al. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.066) The Trick Finally, it’s time to reveal the trick. Mosquitoes evade swats by executing both active and passive movements. In active movements, they steer away from the approaching object, executing turns by adjusting the amount of their wing strokes and the frequency of their wing speed. During the passive phase, the escaping mosquito aligns its flight speed with the airflow produced by the swatter in a manner that the attacker-induced bow wave itself pushes it away from the danger. Implications and future directions Cribellier et al. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.066) noted that the evasive maneuvers of mosquitoes escaping from odor-baited traps are independent of airflow, unlike the mechanism employed to escape from looming objects. The reason for this disparity remains unknown, and elucidating it will offer valuable insights into enhancing trapping systems, thereby aiding in the control of malarial mosquitoes.So, next time when you whack a mosquito, remember that it is drifting away and escaping by taking a free ride you are offering unknowingly! Reference Cribellier, A., Camilo, L. H., Goyal, P., & Muijres, F. T. (2024). Mosquitoes escape looming threats by actively flying with the bow wave induced by the attacker. Current Biology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.066. Arya K Ph.D. Student, Department of Plant Sciences, Manipal School of Life Sciences About the author: I completed my Bachelor’s degree in Agriculture, and my Master’s degree is in Applied Microbiology. I am passionate about communicating science to a broader audience and believe that science tastes better when skillfully blended with the sweetness of art and the spices of storytelling.